Approaches in Teaching English

1.      Grammar Translation Approach (an extension of the approach used to teach classical language to the teaching of modern languages).

a.       Instruction is given in the native language of the students.

b.      There is little use of the target language for communication

c.       Focus is on grammatical parsing, i.e.,the form and inflection words.

d.      There is early reading of difficult text.

e.       A typical exercise is to translate sentences from the target language into the mother tongue (or vice versa)

f.        The result of this approach is usually an inability on the part of the student to use the language for communication.

g.       The teacher does not have to be able to speak the target language.

2.      Direct Approach (a reaction to the Grammar Translation Approach and its failure to produce learners who could communicate in the foreign language they had been studying).

a.       No use of the mother tongue is permitted (i.e., the teacher does not need to know the student’s native language)

b.      Lessons begin with dialogues and anecdotes in modern conversational style.

c.       Actions and pictures are used to make meaning clear.

d.      Grammar is learnt inductively.

e.       Literary texts are read for pleasure and are not analyzed grammatically.

f.        The target culture is also taught inductively

g.       The teacher must be a native speaker or have nativelike proficiency in the target language.

3.      Reading Approach (a reaction to the problems experienced in implementing the Direct Approach; reading was viewed as the most usable skill to have in a foreign language since not many people traveled abroad at that time; also, few teachers could use their foreign language well enough to use a direct approach effectively in class).

a.       Only the grammar useful for reading comprehension is taught.

b.      Vocabulary is controlled at first (based on frequency and usefulness) and then expanded.

c.       Translation is one more a respectable classroom procedure.

d.      Reading comprehension is the only language skill emphasized.

e.       The teacher does not need to have good oral proficiency in the target language.

4.      Audiolingualism ( a reaction to the Reading Approach and its lack of emphasis on oral-aural skills; this approach become dominant in the United States during the 1940s, and 1960s; it draws from the reform movement and the direct approach but add features from structural linguistics [Bloomfield, 1933] and behavioral psychology [Skinner, 1957].

a.       Lesson begin with dialogues

b.      Mimicry and memorization are used, based on the assumption that language is habbit formation.

c.       Grammatical structures are sequenced and rules are taught inductively.

d.      Skills are sequenced; listening, speaking – reading, writing phosphoned.

e.       Pronunciation is stressed from the beginning.

f.        Vocabulary is severely limited in initial stages.

g.       A great effort is made to prevent learner errors.

h.      Language is often manipulated without regard to the meaning or context.

i.        The teacher must be proficient only in the structures, vocabularies, etc. that he or she is teaching since learning activities and materials are carefully controlled.

5.      Oral-Situational Approach (a reaction to the Reading Approach and its lack of emphasis on oral-aural skills; this approach become dominant in Britain during the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s; it draws from the Reform Movement and the Direct Approach but add features from Firthian Linguistics and the emerging professional field of language pedagogy).

a.       The spoken language is primary.

b.      All language material is practiced orally before being presented in written form (reading and writing are taught only after an oral base in lexical and grammatical forms has been established).

c.       Only the target language should be used in the classroom.

d.      Efforts are made to ensure that the most general and useful lexical items are presented.

e.       Grammatical structures are graded from simple to complex.

f.        Next items (lexical and grammatical) are introduced and practiced situationally (e.g., t the post office, at the bank, at the dinner table).

6.      Cognitive Approach (a reaction to the behavioristic features of the Audiolingalism Approach influenced by cognitive psychology [Neisser 1967] and Chomskian Linguistics [Chomsky 1959, 1965].

a.       Language teaching is viewed as rule acquisition, not habit formation.

b.      Instruction is often individualized; learners are responsible for their own learning.

c.       Grammar must be taught but it can be taught deductively (rules first, practice later) and/or inductively (rules can either be stated after practice or left as implicit information for the learner to the process on their own).

d.      Pronunciation is de-emphasized; perfection is viewed as unrealistic and unattainable.

e.       Reading and writing are one again important, as listening and speaking.

f.        Vocabulary instruction is once again important, especially at intermediate and advanced levels.

g.       Errors are viewed as inevitable, to be used constructively in the learning process.

h.      The teacher is expected to have good general proficiency in the target language as well as an ability to analyze the target language.

7.      Affective Humanistic Approach (a reaction to the general lack of affective consideration in both Audiolingualism and Cognitive Approach; e.g., Moskowitz 1978 and Curran 1976).

a.       Respect is emphasized for the individual (each student, the teacher) and for him/her feelings.

b.      Communication that is meaningful to the learner is emphasized.

c.       Instruction involves much work in pairs and small groups.

d.      Class atmosphere are viewed as more important than material or methods.

e.       Peer support and interaction are viewed as necessary for learning

f.        Learning a foreign language is viewed as a self-realization experience.

g.       The teacher is a counselor or facilitator

h.      The teacher should be proficient in the target language and the student’s native language since translation may be used heavily in the initial stages to help students feel at ease; later it is gradually phased out.

8.      Comprehension Based Approach (an out-growth of research in first language acquisition that led some language methodologists to assume that second or foreign language learning is very similar to first language acquisition; e.g., Postovsky 1974, Winitz 1981, Krashen and Terrell 1983).

a.       Listening comprehension is very important and is viewed as the basic skill that will allow speaking, reading and writing to develop spontaneously over time, given the right condition.

b.      Learners should given by listening to meaningful speech and by responding nonverbally in meaningful ways before they produce any language themselves.

c.       Learners should not speak until they feel ready to do so; this results in better pronunciation that if the learners is forced to speak immediately.

d.      Learners progress by being exposed to meaningful input that is just one step beyond their level of competence.

e.       Rule learning may help learners monitor (or become aware of) what they do, but it will not aid their acquisition and spontaneous use of the target language.

f.        Error correction is seen as unnecessary and perhaps even counterproductive, the important thing is that the learners can understand and can make themselves understood.

g.       If the teacher is not a native (or near-native) speaker, appropriate materials such as audiotapes and video tapes must be available to provide the appropriate input for the learners.

9.      Communicative Approach (an out-growth of the work of anthropological linguists [e.g., Halliday 1973], who view language first and foremost as a system for communication).

a.       It is assumed that the goal of language teaching is learner ability to communicate in target language.

b.      It is assumed that the content of a language course will include semantic notions and social functions, not just linguistic structures.

c.       Students regularly work in groups or pairs to transfer (and if necessary, negotiate) meaning in situations in which one person have information that the other (s) lack.

d.      Students often engage in role play or dramatization to adjust their use of the target language to different social context.

e.       Classroom materials and activities are often authentic to reflect real-life situations and demands.

f.        Skill are integrated from the beginning, a given activity might involve reading, speaking, listening, and also writing (this assumes the learners are educated and literate)

g.       The teacher’s role is primarily to facilitate communication and only secondarily to correct errors

h.      The teacher should be able to use the target language fluently and appropriately.

Reference

Marianne Celce-Murcia. 2001. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Heinle & Heinle Thomson Learning