Morphology

Morphology is the study of word formation.

Morpheme -- > form

Morphology is concerned with the structure of words.

1.      Boldest can divided into 2 parts (bold+est), each of which has a meaning; bold cannot.

Observation: illustrates the fact that words are made up of meaningful units (morpheme)

2.      The word boy has a meaning in and itself, the word at does not. Rather, at indicates a relationship between 2 meaningful expressions. For example: the boy at the door.

Observation: illustrates the fact that some morphemes called lexical morpheme, have meaning in and of themselves, others, called grammatical morphemes, specify the relationship between ne lexical morpheme and another.

3.      The form serve can stand alone as a word. The form pre- (as in preserve) cannot.

Observation: illustrates the fact that some morphemes called free morphemes, can stand alone as a word. Others called bound morphemes cannot.

4.      Friendliest is a word; friendestly is not.

Observation: can be used to argue that bound morphemes can be divided into 2 types, inflectional and derivational.

5.      TV and telly are both formed from television.

Observation: illustrates the fact that languages create new words systematically.

Morphemes

A morpheme can be loosely defined a minimal unit having more or less constant meaning associated with more or less constant form.

For example:

-          Buyer

3 morphemes

{buy} + {er} + {s}

{buy}: verb buy

{er}: one who performs an action

{s}: more than one.

So buyer: more than one person who buy thing.

Evidence:

Each of these parts is a morpheme is the fact that each one can occur with other morphemes without changing its core meaning.

{buy} occurs in buy, buying, buys, buyer.

{er} occurs in farmer driver, mover, buyer.

{es} occurs in boys, girls, dogs, buyers.

The more combination of morpheme can occur in, the more productive it is said to be; more productive a morpheme is, the stronger the evidence that it is a separate morpheme.

There are 5 points to note about morpheme:

1.      They are distinct from syllable.

For example:

Alligator: 4 syllables and 1 morpheme

Cats: 1 syllable and 2 morphemes.

2.      Morphemes are distinct from semantic features, in that morphemes have a more or less constant from, which is usually reflected by their spelling.

For example:

The sense of man, boy, stallion, and colt all night be specified with semantic feature [+male], yet all for words constitute different morphemes.

Sense -- > man, boy, stallion, colt -- > male (semantic feature)

3.      Identical spellings do not necessarily indicate identical morphemes.

For example:

-          Buyer (-er): one who

-          Shorter (-er): to a greater degree than.

-          Buyer (-er) always attaches to a verb (buy)

-          Shorter (-er) always attaches to an adjective (short)

So, -er have same spelling and different meaning (different morpheme).

The former is sometimes called the agentive morpheme (abbreviated {AG}, since it indicates one who performs an action, and the latter is termed is the comparative morpheme ({COMP}), since it indicates the comparative degree of an adjective.

-          Buyer (v) -- > {AG}

-          Shorter (adj) -- > {COMP}

4.      The differentiation of morpheme as a minimal unit with more or less constant meaning associated with more or less constant form should be taken as a general rule of thumb rather than a hard and fast criterion.

For example:

-          Boys -- > {boy} + {s}

Girls -- > {girl} + {s}

{s}: plural morpheme {PLU}

-          Men (plural without s, change in vowel)

Man (singular) -- > men (plural)                  

Man and men similar with boy and boys

So, it represents the morphology on men as {man} + {PLU}.

-          Went is to go

Walked is to walk

So, went represents morphologically as {go} + {PAST} and walked as {walk} + {PAST}.

5.      The goal of morphological analysis is to determine the rule that speakers actually follow for forming words in a particular language.

-          History of hamburger

{hamburg} + {er}

Now {ham} + {burger}

Summarize:

A morpheme in a linguistic unit that is defined by (more or less) constant core meaning associated with a (more or less) constant form.

Lexical and Grammatical Morpheme

The distinction between lexical and grammatical morphemes is not well defined.

Lexical morphemes have a sense (i.e, meaning) in and on themselves.

Grammatical morpheme don’t really have a sense in and of them, they express some sort of relationship between lexical morphemes.

Preposition, article and conjunction ({of}, {the}, {but}) are typically of grammatical morphemes.

For example:

-          Restating: {re} + {state}

{re}: grammatical, bound, prefix, derivational

{state}: lexical, free

-          Strongest: {strong} + {est}

{strong}: lexical, free

{est}: grammatical, bound, suffix, inflectional

-          Actively: {active} + {ly}

{active}: lexical, free

{ly}: grammatical, bound, suffix, derivational.

Free and bound morpheme

Free morphemes are those that can stand alone as words, they may be lexical (e.g, {serve, {press}) or they may be grammatical.

Bound morphemes cannot stand alone.

Lexical ({clude} as in exclude, include, preclude)

Grammatical (e.g, {PLU}: plural as in boys, girls, and cats)

For example:

-          The morpheme {er}, as in teachers -- > grammatical bound

-          The morpheme {cur}, as in recur, incur, and occur -- > lexical bound

-          {at}, {to}, and other prepositions -- > grammatical free

-          The morphemes {pel} as in repel, compel, impel -- > lexical bound.

Inflectional and derivational morphemes

Bound grammatical morphemes are affix. Affixes can be subdivided into 2:

1.      Prefixes: attached to the beginning of lexical morphemes.

-          Depress (where {de} is a prefix)

2.      Suffixes: attached to the end of the lexical morphemes.

-          Helpful (where {ful} is a suffix)

Note:

Men: {man} + {PLU} -- > suffix

Plural morpheme in English generally appears as a suffix, never prefix.

Division of morphemes into various types:

Morphemes:

1.      Lexical

a.       Free

-          Nouns, verbs, adjectives. For example: compress, depress, oppress, repress, suppress.

b.      Bound

-          For example: subvert, invert, convert

2.      Grammatical

a.       Free

-          Prepositions, articles, conjunctions. For example: at, the, and

b.      Bound

-          Inflectional

-          Derivational

Inflectional affixes

English has 8 inflectional affixes; all other affixes are derivational. The 8 inflectioal affixes are listed in the following table, along with the type of root (i.e, lexical morphemes) that each one attaches to, and a representative example:

Inflectional affixes	Root	Example
{PLU}: plural	Noun	Boys
{POSS}: possessive	Noun	Boy’s
{COMP}: comparative	Adjective	Older
{SUP}: superlative	Adjective	Oldest
{PRES}: present	Verb	Walks
{PAST}: past	Verb	Walked
{PAST PART}: past participle	Verb	Driven
{PRES PART}: present participle	Verb	Driving

1.      {PLU}

All plural nouns in English can be represented morphologically as a root + {PLU}, regardless of how the plural morpheme is actually spelled or pronounced.

For example:

-          Boys: {boy} + {PLU}

-          Men: {man} + {PLU}

-          Sheep: {sheep} + {PLU}

2.      {POSS}

A root + {POSS}

For example:

-          Boy’s: {boy} + {POSS}

-          Man’s: {man + {POSS}

3.      {COMP} and {SUP}

A root + {COMP} or {SUP}

For example:

-          Happier: {happy} + {COMP}

-          Happiest: {happy} + {SUP}

-          Good: {good}

-          Better: {good} + {COMP}

-          Best: {good} + {SUP}

-          Most beautiful: {beautiful} + {SUP} -- > a root + affix

-          Prettiest: {pretty} + {SUP} -- > free grammatical morpheme.

4.      {PRESS}

All present tense verb can be represented morphologically a root + {PRES}

For example:

-          Loves (John loves Mary): {love} + {PRES}

-          I think, think is inflected for tense ({think} + {PRES})

-          I have thought, have is inflected for tense ({have} + {PRES})

-          I am thinking, am is inflected for tense ({be} + {PRESS}) etc.

5.      {PAST}

All past tenses

A root + {PAST}

For example:

-          Walked (John walked on hot coals): {walk} + {PAST}

-          Drove: {drive} + {PAST}

6.      {PAST PART}

All past participles

A root + {PAST PART}

For example:

-          Driven (John has driven hid mother crazy): {drive} + {PAST PART}

-          Gone: {go} + {PAST PART}

-          Come (they’ve come home): {come} + {PAST PART}

-          Hit (he’s hit 3 home runs): {hit} + {PAST PART}

-          Walked (he walked 3 miles): {walk} + {PAST PART}

7.      {PRES PART}

All present participles

A root + {PRES PART}

For example:

-          Drinking: {drink} + {PRES PART}

-          Laughing (they are laughing): {laugh} + {PAST PART}

We should add a footnote at this point concerning verb forms in English. In simple, active sentences there are 5 different types of verbs that can occur: main verbs and 4 different auxiliary verbs (modals, verbs, forms of have, forms of be, and forms of do).

1.      The main verb is always the right. Most verbs in a simple sentence.

For example:

-          John should have gone -- > gone is main verb

-          John might have a cold -- > have is main verb

2.      The primary modal verbs are:

Can/could, shall/should, will/would, may/might and must

When a modal occurs in a sentence, it is always the first verb form and it is always followed by an inflected verb form.

For example:

-          John will be going (the modal will is first in the series and following verb be is uninflected.

3.      If the auxiliary have occurs in a simple active sentence, it is always followed by past participle.

For example:

-          John has eaten (eaten follows have -- > a past part)

-          John has been eating (been follows have -- > a past part)

Both modal and auxiliary have occurs in the same sentence, have follows the modal

For example:

-          We may have gone (have follows the modal may)

4.      If the auxiliary be occurs in a simple sentence, it is always followed by a present participle.

For example:

-          John is eating (eating follow a form of be: is)

-          John will be eating (eating follows be)

Both auxiliary have and be

-          We have been eating (the form of be: been follows the form of have)

5.      The auxiliary do never occur with any of the other auxiliary verbs in a simple active sentence. do and other auxiliaries never occur in the same environment (in a simple active sentence), the 2 items are said to be complementary distribution.

Auxiliary do only occur with main verb.

For example:

-          I do eat corn (do: auxiliary, eat: main verb)

Main verb is always uninflected

Another example:

-          Someone may have been knocking at the door.

Knocking: main verb.

It is present participle because immediately follows a form of be

been: an auxiliary verb because it is not the right most verbs.

6.      Tense

It refers to a particular form of a verb

There are 2 inflected tenses: present and past

Past tense verb generally characterized by a –t or –d (suffix)

May: present, might: past

Can: present, could: past

Inflected tense does not correlate perfectly with time reference.

For example:

-          I might go with you tonight.

It contains: a past tense verb form (might) but the sentence refers to the future time.

-          Yesterday, this guy comes up to me on the street.

It contains: a present tense verb form (comes) but the sentence refers to past time.

-          John leaves for Chicago tomorrow.

It contains: a present tense verb form (leaves) but the sentence refers to the future time.

            The Example:

Someone may have been knocking at the door

1.      Knocking is the main verb, because it is the right most verbs. It is a present participle, because it immediately follows a form of be.

2.      Been is an auxiliary verb, because it is not the right most verb. It is a past participle, because it immediately follows a form of have.

3.      Have is an auxiliary verb, because it is not the right most verb. It is uninflected, because it immediately follows a modal (may).

4.      May is a modal, because it lacks the third person singular –s. it is inflected for present tense (might would be past), since the first and only the first verb in a simple sentence in English.

Derivational affixes

a.       The suffix {ize} attaches to a noun and turns it into the corresponding verb.

For example: criticize, rubberize, vulcanize, pasteurize, mesmerize, etc.

Critic (noun) -- > criticize (verb)

Volcano (noun) -- > vulcanize (verb)

b.      The suffix {ize} can be also be added to adjective.

For example: normalize, realize, finalize, vitalize, equalize, etc.

Normal (noun) -- > normalize (adjective)

Real (noun) -- > normalize (adjective)

c.       The suffix {ful} attaches to the noun and turns it into the corresponding adjective.

For example: helpful, playful, thoughtful, careful, etc.

Help (noun) -- > helpful (adjective)

Play (noun) -- > playful (adjective)

d.      The suffix {ly} attaches to an adjective and turn it into the corresponding adverb.

For example: quickly, carefully, swiftly, nightly, etc.

Quick (adjective) -- > quickly (adverb)

Careful (adjective) -- > carefully (adverb)

e.       The suffix {ly} attaches to a noun and change it into the correspondingly adjective.

For example: friendly, mainly, neighborly, etc

Friend (noun) -- > friendly (adjective)

Two different morphological symbols for these two derivational suffixes stalled –ly.

-          {AG}

-          {COMP}

f.       Derivational prefixes meaning ‘not’

For example:

{un} unhappy, unwary, unassuming, and unforgettable.

{dis} displeasure, disproportionate, dislike, distrust.

{a} asymmetrical, asexual, atheist, atypical.

{anti} anti-America, anti-Castro, anti-aircraft.

Differences between types of affixes

There are 2 classes of bound grammatical morphemes.

1.      Inflectional

2.      Derivational

If the 2 items exhibit different behavior under the same conditions, they must belong to different categories.

Historical development

All inflectional affixes are native to English many (but not all) derivational affixes are borrowing from other language (Latin and Greek).

For Example:

{ize} is borrowed from Greek

{dis}, {de}, {re} are borrowed from Latin

{a}, {anti} are borrowed from Greek and Latin

Derivational prefixes (native English)

For example:

{ful}, {ly} or both {ful, ly}, {like} and {AG}.

All borrowed affixes are derivational.

Distribution

-          All inflectional affixes are suffixes.

-          Derivational affixes may be either suffixes or prefixes.

-          Inflectional affixes all appear as suffixes: {PLU}, {POSS}, {COMP}, {SUP}.

-          Unexceptional cases

For example:   sung: {sing} + {PAST}

                        Walked: {walk} + {PAST}

-          Derivational affixes may be either prefixes or suffixes.

For example: unfriendly

{friend}: free lexical morpheme

{un}: derivational prefix

{ly}: derivational suffix

-          In sum: if an affix is a prefix, then it is derivational (i.e, all prefixes are derivational)

Range of application

-          Inflectional affixes have a relatively wide range of application. Wide range means that an affix joins with (almost) all members of a particular category.

For example:

Inflectional affix {PLU} adjoins to (almost) all members of category noun.

-          Derivational affixes have a varying range of applications. Many of them (especially prefix) have a fairly narrow range of application.

For example:

a.       Derivational prefix {a} can be prefixed to a very limited number of lexical morphemes: asexual, atypical, asymmetrical, atheist, agnostic, amoral, apolitical, aseptic, aphasia.

b.      Derivational prefix {un} seems to have somewhat wider range of application. It is prefixed to adjectives to form the negative: unhappy, unreliable, unpatriotic, unpopular, unbearable, unimportant, unremarkable, etc.

c.       Derivational suffixes tend to have a wider range of application. For example: {AG} affix can be suffixed to a wide range of verb: does, achiever, thinker, builder, banker, pusher, etc.

d.      Derivational suffixes have a very limited range of application. For example: {hood}: motherhood, fatherhood, uncle hood.

-          In sum, if an affix has a narrow range of application, it is derivational.

Order of appearance

Inflectional suffixes follow derivational suffixes, if a word contain both a derivational and an inflectional suffix, then the inflectional suffix come last.

For example:

R: root

D: derivational

I: inflectional

-          Friendliest

{friend} + {ly} + {SUP}

     R           D         I

-          Lovers

{love} + {AG} + {PLU}

     R         D           I

-          Spoonsful and spoonfuls

{spoon} + {ful} + {PLU} -- > spoonfuls

     R            D           I

{spoon} + {PLU} + {ful} -- > spoonsful

     R              I              D

-          Cupfuls/cupsful

-          Mother-in-laws/mothers-in-law

-          Attorneys general/attorney generals

N           Adj (cannot be inflected for {PLU}

Effect on syntactic category

1.      Inflectional affixes do not change the syntactic category (i.e, part of speech) of the root they are attached.

-          Inflectional suffixes

Boy -- > noun

Boys -- > ({boy} + {PLU}) -- > noun

Short -- > adjective

Shorter -- > ({short} + {COMP}) -- > adjective

Drive -- > verb

Driven -- > ({drive} + {PAST PART}) -- > verb.

2.      Derivational suffixes

Critic -- > noun

Criticize ({critic} + {ize}) -- > verb

Quick -- > adjective

Quickly -- > ({quick} + {ly}) -- > adverb

Read -- > verb

Readable ({read} + {able}) -- > adjective

-          Some derivational do not change the category of root.

Brother -- > noun

Brotherhood ({brother} + {hood}) -- > noun

-          Derivational prefixes

Change the category of root.

Freeze -- > verb

Antifreeze ({anti} + {freeze}) -- > noun

Do not change the category of root.

Do -- > verb

Undo ({un} + {do}) -- > verb

Redo ({re} + {do}) -- > verb

Number of allowable affixes

No noun, adjective or adverb can have more than one inflectional affix at any one time.

For example:

-          Happierest ({happy} + {COMP + {SUP}) -- > incorrect

-          Droven ({drive} + {PAST} + {PAST PART}) -- > incorrect

-          Unacceptable if {COMP} + {SUP}

-          Men’s ({man} + {PLU} + {POSS} -- > it is constructed from a noun plus 2 inflectional affixes: {man} + {PLU} + {POSS}. {PLU} affixes to Ns (nouns). {POSS} affixes to NPs (noun phrase).

-          NP -- > the man on the moon. It contains N man.

-          If inflect the N man for plurality:

The man on the moon -- > {PLU} attaches to N man.

-          If want to make the phrase possessive, we inflect the entire NP.

For example:

The man on the moon’s wife -- > correct

The man’s on the moon wife -- > incorrect

So, men’s does not violate our principle that there can be no more than one inflectional affix per syntactic category.

The morphological structure of men’s:

[NP[N{man}] + {PLU} + {POSS}

N man is inflected for {PLU} and NP man is inflected for {POSS}

Syntactic category: {cover} -- > verb

Derivational affixes: coverable, recover, recoverable, uncover, uncoverable, recoverability, unrecoverability.

So, a syntactic category can take a (theoretically) infinite number of derivational affixes, but no more than one inflectional affix.

Reference

Louisiana State University (Retired), Kathryn Riley, Illinois Institute of Technology, 2005, LINGUISTICS FOR NON-LINGUISTS