English Phonology

It is the study of the sound system of language. Phonology comes from Greek word. Phone: voice.

Some observations about the sound system of English:

1.      The first sound in the word “fight” is produced by bringing together the top teeth and the bottom lip, and then blowing air between them.

Observation: Illustrates the fact that we use our vocal tract to produce speech.

2.      The word “war” is produced with one continues motion of vocal tract (lungs, tongue, lips, etc) yet we interpret this motion a series of three separate speech sound, w-a-r.

Observation: Illustrates the fact that the words are physically one continuous motion but are psychologically a series of discrete units called segment.

3.      The words “pea, see, me, and key” all have the same vowel, even though the vowel in each word is spelled differently.

Observation: Illustrates that a single segment can be represented by a variety of spellings.

2 and 3 can, in turn, be used to justify a phonemic alphabet, a system of transcription in which 1 symbol uniquely represent 1 segment.

4.      p and b are alike in that they are both pronounced with the lips, p and k are different in that k is not pronounced with the lips.

Observation: Illustrates the fact that segments are composed of smaller units called distinctive feature. Thus, “labial” (referring to the lips) is a distinctive feature shared by p and b but not by p and k.

5.      The vowels in the words cab and cad are longer than the same vowels in cap and cat.

Observation: Illustrates 2 segments can be the same on one level of representation but different on another.

Cab

Cad     ------ >             same on 1 level (different vowel a), different on another level long

Cap                             and short and different in duration.

Cat

Phonological rules is systematic variations between level of representation. 

Vocal Tract

It consists of the passageway between the lips and nostrils on 1 end and the larynx, which contains the vocal cords, on the other.

Important of vocal tract to study phonology for 2 reasons:

1.      Human beings use the vocal tract to produce speech.

2.      Terms which refer to the physical properties of the vocal tract are used to describe the psychological units of phonology.

Speech refers to what we are actually doing when we talk and listen. It is physically and physiological phenomena.

Phonology refers to the segments and rules in term of which we organize our interpretation of speech. It is mental/psychological phenomena.

Phonemic Alphabets

Phoneme is one type of segment that we perceive when we hear speech. Spelling does not provide an adequate means of representing the phonological structure of words.

For example:

pea and key

ea         ey        vowel

pea, see, me key /i/ same vowel

/pi/, /si/, /mi/, /ki/

Vowels

Phonemic symbol	Example
Stressed vowels
/i/	Seat
/ɪ/	Sit
/e/	Say
/ɛ/	Said
/ӕ/	Sad
Unstressed vowels
/Λ/	Suds (soda)
/a/	Sod, fog
/u/	Suit
/ʊ/	Soot
/o/	Sewed
/ɔ/	Sought
/aɪ/	Sight
/au/	South
/ɔɪ/	Soy

Vowel Phonemes

1.      Tongue high

Tongue high in the mouth (/i, ɪ, u, ʊ/) – see /si/

Tongue mid (/e, ɛ, Λ, (ǝ), o/) – say /se/

Tongue low (/ӕ, a, ɔ/)

2.      Frontness

The tongue is either relatively front (/i, ɪ, ɛ, ӕ/) or back (/Λ (ǝ), a, u, ʊ, o, ɔ/)

Front – see /si/

Back – sue /su/

3.      Lip rounding

The lips are either relatively round (/u, ʊ, o, ɔ/) or spread (/i, ɪ, e, ɛ, ӕ, Λ(ǝ), a/)

Round – so /so/

Spread – say /se/

4.      Tenseness

The vocal musculature is either relatively tense (/i, e, u, o, ɔ/) or lax (/ɪ, ɛ, ӕ, Λ(ǝ), a, ʊ/).

Tense – aid /ed/

Lax – ed /ed/

Distinctive Feature

Each vowel phonemes is not really an invisible unit, but rather a composite of values (+ or -) along several dimensions.

For example:

/i/ : +high, -low, -back, +tense, -round

/ɔ/ : -high, +low, +back, +tense, +round

Phonemes and distinctive features are theoretical construct within a theory of phonology.

	Front	Back		Tense /       Lax
High	i/ɪ		u/ʊ
Mid	e/ɛ	/Λ(ǝ)	o/
Low	/ӕ	/ a	ɔ/
	Spread		Round

The description of vowel phonemes of English in terms of tongue.

1.      /ӕ/ : low, front, spread, lax

2.      /o/ : mid, back, round, tense

3.      /ɛ/ : mid, front, spread, lax

4.      /Λ(ǝ)/ : mid, back spread lax

5.      /a/ : low, back, spread, lax

6.      /ɔ/ : low, back, round, tense

7.      /ʊ/ : high, back, round, lax

8.      /i/ : high, front, spread, tense

Consonants

Consonant phonemes – psicological units

Phonemic Symbol	Example
/p/	Pat, zipper, cap
/b/	Bat, fibber, cab
/t/	Tab, catty, cat
/d/	Dab, caddy, cad
/k/	Cap, dicker, tack
/g/	Gap, digger, tag
/f/	Fat, safer, belief
/v/	Vat, saver, believe
/q/	Thin, ether, breath
/ð/	Then, either, breathe
/s/	Sue, lacy, peace
/z/	Zoo, lazy, peas
/š/	Shoe, thresher, rush
/ž/	-, treasure, rouge
/h/	Ham, a head, -
/č/	Chain, sketchy, beseech
/ĵ/	Jane, edge, besiege
/m/	Mitt, simmer, seem
/n/	Knit, sinner, seen
/ŋ/	-, singer, sing
/l/	Light, teller, coal
/r/	Right, terror, core
/w/	Wet, lower
/y/	Yet, layer

English words which appear to end in /w/ and /y/ are analyzed as endings in vowels in this system.

For Example:

Cow /kaʊ/

Sky /skaɪ/

1.      Place of Articulation

a.       Bilabial (bi: 2, labial: lips)

The primary constriction is at the lips

/p, b, m, w/

Pea /pi/ : bilabial

Tea /ti/ : non bilabila

b.      Labiodental (labio: lip, dental: teeth)

The primary constriction is between the lower lip and upper teeth.

/f, v/

Fee /fi/ : labiodental

See /si/ : non labiodental

c.       Interdental (inter : between, dental: teeth)

The primary constriction is between the tongue and the upper teeth

/q, ð/

Thigh /qaɪ/ : interdental

Shy /šaɪ/ : non interdental

d.      Alveolar (alveolar ridge)

The primary constriction is between the tongue and alveolar ridge.

/t, d, s, z, n, l/

Tea /ti/ : alveolar

Key /ki/ : non alveolar

e.       Palatal (palate)

The primary constriction is between the tongue and the palate.

/š, ž, č, ĵ, r, y/

Shoe /šu/ : palatal

Sue /su/ : non palatal

f.       Velar (velum)

The primary constriction is between the tongue and the velum.

/k, g, ŋ/

Coo /ku/ : velar

Two /tu/ : non velar

g.      Glottal (glottis) space between the vocal cords.

The primary constriction is at the glottis.

/h/

Hoe /ho/ : glottal

So /so/ : non glottal

2.      Manner of Articulation

a.       Stops

Two articulators (lips, tongue, teeth, etc) are brought together such that the flow of air through the vocal tract is completely blocked.

/p, b, t, d, k, g/

Tea /ti/ : stop

See /si/ : non stop

b.      Fricatives

Two articulators are brought near each other such that the flow of air is impeded but not completely blocked. The flow of air through the narrow opening creates friction, hence the term fricative.

/f, v, q, ð, s, z, š, ž/

Zoo /zu/ : fricative

Do /du/ : non fricative

c.       Affricates

Articulations corresponding affricates are those that begin like stops (with a complete closure in the vocal tract) and end like fricatives (with a narrow opening in the vocal tract)

/č, ĵ/

Chew /ču/ : affricate

Shoe /šu/ : non affricate

Because affricates can be describe as a stop plus a fricative, some phonemic alphabets transcribe /č/ as /tš/ and /ĵ/ as /dž/

d.      Nasals

A nasal articulation is one in which the airflow through the mouth is completely blocked but the velum is lowered, forcing the air through the nose.

/m, n, ŋ/

No /no/ : nasal

Doe /do/ : non nasal

e.       Liquids and Glides

Both of these terms describe articulations that are mid way between true consonants (i.e. stop, fricative, affricate, and nasal) and vowels, although they are both generally classified as consonants.

Liquid

/l, r/

Low /lo/ : liquid

Doe /do/ : non liquid

Glide

/w, y/

Way /we/ : glide

Bay /be/ : non glide

Consonant can be describe into obstruent (stop, fricative, and affricate) and sonorant (nasal, liquid, and glide)

3.      Voicing

For any articulation corresponding to one of these consonant phonemes, the vocal cord are either vibrating or not.

Vibrating /b, d, g, v, ð, z, ž, ĵ, m, n, ŋ, r, l, w, y/

Non vibrating /p, t, k, f, q, s, š, č, h/

Zoo /zu/: voiced

Sue /su/: voiceless

Stops, fricatives and affricates come in voiced and voiceless pairs (except for /h/); nasals, liquids, and glides are all voiced as are vowels.

Consonant phoneme is not really an indivisible unit, but rather each is a bundle of feature values; as follow

/p/ : +bilabial, +stop, -voice

/ŋ/: +velar, +nasal, +voice

		Bilabial	Labiodental	Interdental	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stops	Voiceless	p			t
	Voiced	b			d
Fricatives	Voiceless		f	q	s	š		h
	Voiced		v	ð	z	ž
Affricates	Voiceless					č
	Voiced					ĵ
Nasals	Voiceless
	Voiced	m			n		ŋ
Liquids	Voiceless
	Voiced				l	r
Glides	Voiceless
	Voiced	w				y

/p/ is a voiceless bilabial stop

/v/ is a voiced labiodentals fricative

/č/ is a voiceless palatal affricate

/ŋ/ is a voiced velar nasal

Several points of potential confusion:

1.      The specific symbols used in a phonemic alphabet are of no particular theoretical importance.

For example: symbol /p/ and /b/ in English could in theory, be replaced by /1/ and /2/.

2.      A number of phonemic alphabet for English are currently in use.

For example:   yes sometimes transcribed as /y/ or /j/

                        Vowel             pea -- > /i/ or /iy/

                                    Mother -- >/ðǝr/ or /ðɚ/

3.      Some of the phonemes of English charted slightly differently (recall the vowel and consonant charts discussed earlier), depending upon who you read.

For example:   /h/ as a fricative or glide

                        /ɔ/ as a low vowel or a mid vowel

4.      The phonemic representation of the words in a language is not identical for every speaker of that language.

For example:

The vowel in cot and caught are different for some speakers in English, cot /a/ and caught /ɔ/, but the same for others cot and caught /a/.

Garage /ž/ or /ĵ/

Think /ɪ/ or /i/ or /e/

5.      Different languages have different sets of phonemes.

For example:

English contains the interdental fricatives /q/ and /ð/ but French, German, Italian, Persian, and Russian do not.

French has 3 :  /ü/ (high) in suere (sugar)

/ö/ (mid) in jeu (game)

/œ/ (low) in oeuf (egg)

But English do not.

Level of Representation

Allophones

For example:

/t/ - Tim -- > air release --> [tʰ]

/t/ - stem --> no rush of air --> [t]

/t/ - hit --> stop at the alveolar ridge --> [t˺]

/t/ - hit me --> stop formed with the vocal cords --> [ʔ]

/t/ - Betty --> alveolar flap --> Beddy [ɾ]

Conclusion:

1.      [tʰ] as in Tim occurs, when /t/ begins a syllable and is followed by a stressed vowel.

2.      [t] as in stem occurs, when /t/ is followed by a vowel, but does not begin a syllable.

3.      [t˺] as in hit occurs, when /t/ occurs at the end of an utterance.

4.      [ʔ] as in hit me occurs when /t/ follows a vowel and precedes a consonant.

5.      [ɾ] as in Betty occurs when /t/ follows a stressed vowel and precedes an unstressed vowel.

There are 2 levels of phonological representation:

1.      Phonemic, where phonemes are described

2.      Phonetic, where allophones of phonemes are described.

Two segments can be both the same (i.e, phonemically) and different (i.e, phonetically)

Phoneme /t/

Allophone       [tʰ] as in Tim

[t] as in stem

[t˺] as in hit

[ʔ] as in hit me

[ɾ] as in Betty

Hit [t˺] and hid [d˺] are allophones of different phonemes /t/ and /d/.

[t˺] and [t] are free variation, allophones of the same phoneme, namely /t/.

The Example:

v  Tatter /tætər/ : first /t/ -- > [tʰ]

Second /t/ -- > [ɾ]

If we substitute one phone for the other namely [rætʰər], two such phones that never occur in the same context are said complementary distribution and are allophones of the same phoneme. In this case [tʰ] an [ɾ] are allophone of /t/.

Phonological Rules

Aspiration (phonological process)

Sip                   /sip/                  [sɪp]

Appear                        /əpir/                [əpʰɪr]

Pepper             /pɛpər/             [pʰɛər]

Space               /spes/               [spes]

Papaya             /pəpaɪyə/          [pəpʰaɪə]

/p/ has 2 allophones [pʰ] and [p]

            [pʰ] occurs before stressed vowels (/i, ɪ, ɛ, æ/)

            [p] in space is not aspirated even though the following /e/ is stressed

            So [p] is different from the [pʰ]s in appear [əpʰɪr], pepper [pʰɛər], and papaya [pəpʰaɪə].

Note the [pʰ] in appear, pepper, and papaya to preceding a stressed vowel also begin a syllable. [p] in space does not.

/p/ become [pʰ] when it both begins a syllable and followed by a stressed vowel or /p/ becomes aspirated when it begins a syllable and is followed by a stressed vowel.

v  W -- > X / Y __ Z

This rules states that segment W becomes segment X when it follows Y and precedes Z.

-- > Becomes

/ in the following environment

$ syllable

v  /p/ -- > [aspirated] / $ __ V (+stress)

This rule states that the phoneme /p/ becomes aspirated when it begin a syllable (i.e, when there is a syllable boundary to its left) and is followed by a stressed vowel (V)

or

/p/ -- > [pʰ] / $ __ Vˋ

v  [+stop, -voice] -- > [+aspirated] / $ __ V (+stress)

/p/, /t/, /k/ becomes aspirated when they begin a syllable and are followed by a stressed vowel.

/p, t, k/ : voiceless stop / [+stop, -voice]

v  A vowel is lengthened when it occurs at the end of a word (the symbol # indicates a word boundary)

V -- > [V] / ___ #

v  A voiceless consonant becomes voiced when it occurs between two vowels

C -- > [+voice] / V __ V

v  A vowel becomes nasalized when occurs after a nasal consonant.

V -- > Vˋ / ____ N

v  A voiced stop becomes voiceless when it occurs word finally.

C -- > [-voice] / ___ #

v  A nasal segment is deleted when it occurs before a voiceless stop (hint: ø : nul set)

/+nas/ -- > ø / [+stop, -voice]

Vowel Lengthening

Heat                /hit/                  [hit]

Seize                /siz/                  [si:z]

Keel                 /kil/                  [kʰi:l]

Leaf                 /lif/                   [li:f]

Heed               /hid/                 [hi:d]

Cease               /sis/                  [si:s]

Leave              /liv/                  [li:v]

/i/ has 2 allophones [i] and [i:]

v  Seize [si:z] is long vowel

Cease [sis] is short vowel

[s] left of the vowel

v  Heat, leaf, cease are short vowels followed by a voiceless (-voice) consonant [t], [f], [s].

v  Heed, leave, seize, keel are long vowels followed by a voiced (+voice) consonant [d], [v], [z], and [l]

v  So /i/ becomes [i:] when it precedes a voices consonant.

v  /i/ -- > [+long] __ voiced consonant

or /i/ -- > [i:] __ C (+voice)

v  This rule states that the phoneme /i/ becomes lengthened when it precedes a voiced consonant (C).

v  V -- > [+long] / ___ C (+voice)

This rule states that all vowels become lengthened when it precedes a voiced consonant (under the same condition).

Vowel Nasalization

Map                 /mæp/              [mæp]

Pan                  /pæn/               [pæˋn]

Pad                  /pæd/               [pæd]

Pam                 /pæm/              [pæˋm]

Gnat                /næt/                [næt]

Pang                /pæŋ/               [pæˋŋ]

v  /æ/ has 2 allophones [æ] and [æˋ]

[ˋ] is nazalisation

/æ/becomes [æˋ]

-          Pan, pad, pam, pang are long vowel [æ:] since they each precedes a voiced consonant [p].

-          Nasal consonant /m/, /n/, /ŋ/

-          Map [mæp] and gnat [næt] are preceding consonant but no nasalized vowel.

-          Pan [pæˋn], pam [pæˋm], pang [pæˋŋ] are each contain a nasalized vowel, followed by nasal consonant. It must be the following nasal consonant that is causing the vowel nasalization

/æ/ becomes [æˋ] when it is followed by a nasal consonant

/æ/ -- > [+nasal] / ___ C (+nasal) or

/æ/ -- > [æˋ] / ___ C (+nasal)

v  All vowels in English become nasalized when they precede a nasal consonant

v  So, in this case a vowel becomes more like an adjacent nasal consonant by becoming nasalization itself called Assimilation.

Flapping

Ride                /ra’ɪd/               [ra’ɪd]

Dire                 /da’ɪr/               [da’ɪr]

Rider               /ra’ɪdər/            [ra’ɪɾər]

Write               /ra’ɪt/                [wa’ɪt]

Tire                  /ta’ɪr/                [ta’ɪr]

Writer              /ra’ɪtər/             [wa’ɪɾər]

Lender             /lɛ’ndər/           [lɛ’ndər]

Easter              /i’stər/              [I’stər]

Attact              /ətæ’k/             [ətæ’k]

Adobe             /ədo’bi/            [ədo’bi]

·         /t/ and /d/ become [ɾ] or an allophone flap.

Determine under what condition /t/ and /d/ become [ɾ]

Rider is alveolar stop [ɾ]

Writer is alveolar stop [ɾ]

-          Lender [lɛ’ndər] and easter [i’stər] -- the stop occurs between a consonant and a vowel

-          Attack [ətæ’k] and adobe [ədo’bi] -- the vowel to the left of the stop is unstressed and that to the right is stressed.

·         /t/ and /d/ become [ɾ] when they occur between the two vowels, the first is stressed and the second of which is unstressed. This rule accurately accounts for all of the [ɾ]’s is in our data. That is, it predicts where they remain unchanged.

/+stop, +alveolar/ -- > [ɾ] / V(+stress) ___ V(-stress)

For example: ride [ra’ɪd] and raider [raɪ’ɾər]

{/t/, /d/} -- > [ɾ] / Vˋ___ V

A breve (‘) above a vowel indicates that it is unstressed.

·         Flapping is a special case of neutralization, a process that obliterates the contrast between two segments in a particular environment.

Nasal Deletion

Can                  /kæn/               [kæ’n]

Cad                 /kæd/               [kæd]

Canned            /kænd/             [kæ’nd]

Cat                  /kæt/                [kæt]

Can’t               /kænt/              [kæ’t]

·         In this data, 2 phonological rules apply,

1.      Vowel nasalization rule

Can [kæ’n], Canned [kæ’nd], Can’t [kæ’t]

2.      A rule deleting a nasal consonant applies

Can’t  /kænt/ becomes [kæ’t]

·         Determine!

1.      Under what conditions nasal deletion applies?

2.      In what order vowel nasalization and nasal deletion must apply?

Answer:

/n/ in can’t [kæ’t] is deleted

/n/ in can [kæ’n] and Canned [kæ’nd]is not deleted.

How we can differentiate?

/n/ is can’t is followed by a /t/ [kæ’t]

/n/ in can [kæ’n] and Canned [kæ’nd] is not followed by /t/

Delete /n/ when it precedes /t/.

This rule accounts for the absence of [n] in can’t, and by exclusion, it also accounts for the presence of [n] in can and canned.

/n/ -- > ø / ___ /t/

Ø : null set

The rule reads:

/n/ is deleted (i.e, becomes nothing) when it occurs before a /t/

Any nasal (/m, n, ŋ/) is deleted in English when it occurs before any voiceless stop (/p, t, k/) within the same syllable.

So, nasal deletion rule for Engliah as follows:

C (+nasal) -- > ø ___ [+stop, -voice] $

Reference

Frank Parker and Kathryn Riley, 1994, Linguistics for Non-Linguists, United States of America.